Over the past four decades the incidence of melanoma has been increasing at a higher rate than any other type of cancer. It is now theorized that one in 90 American Caucasians will develop malignant melanoma in their lifetime. While an increasing proportion of melanomas are diagnosed sufficiently early to respond to surgical treatment and achieve a greater than 90% ten-year survival rate, it is estimated that nearly 7,000 individuals suffering from metastatic melanoma will die in the United States this year.
For patients with metastatic melanoma not amenable to surgical extirpation, treatment options are limited. 5-(3,3-Dimethyl-1-triazenyl)-1-H-imidazole-4-carboxamide (dacarbazine, DTIC) is the most efficacious single chemotherapeutic agent for melanoma having an overall response rate of 24%. But the duration of response to DTIC is generally quite poor. Combination therapy with other synthetic and recombinant agents, including N,N'-bis(2-chloroethyl)-N-nitrosurea (carmustine, BCNU), cisplatin, tamoxifen, interferon-alpha (INF-.alpha.) and interleukin-2 (IL-2), has a higher response rate (e.g., 30-50%) in some trials, but a durable complete response rate is uncommon and toxicity is increased. Sequential chemotherapy has promise, but, clearly, current treatment options for individuals suffering from metastatic melanoma are unsatisfactory.
Various drugs derived from natural products, such as adriamycin (doxorubicin) derivatives, bleomycin, etoposide, and vincristine, and their derivatives, have been tested for efficacy against melanoma either as single agents or in combination therapy. However, similar to the synthetic and recombinant compounds, these compounds exhibit low response rates, transient complete responses, and high toxicities.
Nonetheless, as demonstrated by known and presently-used cancer chemotherapeutic agents, plant-derived natural products are a proven source of effective drugs. Two such useful natural product drugs are paclitaxel (taxol) and camptothecin. Paclitaxel originally derived from the bark of the Pacific yew tree Taxus brevifolia Nutt. (Taxaceae), currently is used for the treatment of refractory or residual ovarian cancer. More recently, clinical trials have been performed to investigate the possible role of paclitaxel in the treatment of metastatic melanoma. As a single agent, taxol displays activity comparable to cisplatin and IL-2. Taxol functions by a unique mode of action, and promotes the polymerization of tubulin. Thus, the antitumor response mediated by taxol is due to its antimitotic activity. The second drug of prominence, camptothecin, was isolated from the stem bark of a Chinese tree, Camptotheca acuminata Decaisne (Nyssaceae). Camptothecin also functions by a novel mechanism of action, i.e., the inhibition of topoisomerase I. Phase II trials of a water-soluble camptothecin pro-drug analog, Irinotican (CPT-11), have been completed in Japan against a variety of tumors with response rates ranging from 0% (lymphoma) to 50% (small cell lung). Topotecan, another water-soluble camptothecin analog, currently is undergoing Phase II clinical trials in the United States.
Previous antitumor data from various animal models utilizing betulinic acid have been extremely variable and apparently inconsistent. For example, betulinic acid was reported to demonstrate dose-dependent activity against the Walker 256 murine carcinosarcoma tumor system at dose levels of 300 and 500 mg/kg (milligrams per kilogram) body weight. In contrast, a subsequent report indicated the compound was inactive in the Walker 256 (400 mg/kg) and in the L1210 murine lymphocytic leukemia (200 mg/kg) models. Tests conducted at the National Cancer Institute confirmed these negative data.
Similarly, antitumor activity of betulinic acid in the P-388 murine lymphocyte test system has been suggested. However, activity was not supported by tests conducted by the National Cancer Institute. More recently, betulinic acid was shown to block phorbol ester-induced inflammation and epidermal ornithine decarboxylase accumulation in the mouse ear model. Consistent with these observations, the carcinogenic response in the two-stage mouse skin model was inhibited. Thus, some weak indications of antitumor activity by betulinic acid have been reported, but, until the present invention, no previous reports or data suggested that betulinic acid was useful for the selective control or treatment of human melanoma. Furthermore, to date, no information has been published with respect to the selective activity of derivatives of betulinic acid against melanoma cells.
In addition, although betulinic acid has demonstrated a selectivity with respect to inhibiting malignant melanoma, additional studies have shown that betulinic acid, and betulinic acid derivatives, can inhibit other types of cancer cells, such as neuroblastoma.